Galaxy

A galaxy is a massive, gravitational bound system that consists of stars and stellar remnants, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and an important but poorly understood component tentatively dubbed dark matter. The word galaxy is derived from the Greek galaxies literally "milky", a reference to the milky galaxy. Examples of galaxies range from dwarf with as few as ten million (10⁷) stars to giants with a hundred trillion (10¹⁴) stars, each orbiting their galaxy's own center of mass.

Galaxies contain varying amounts of star system, star cluster and types of interstellar clouds. In between these objects is a sparse interstellar medium of gas, dust, and cosmic rays. Dark matter appears to account for around 90% of the mass of most galaxies. Observational data suggests that super massive black hole may exist at the center of many, if not all, galaxies. They are thought to be the primary driver of active galatic nuclei found at the core of some galaxies. The Milky Way galaxy appears to harbor at least one such object.

Galaxies have been historically categorized according to their apparent shape; usually referred to as their visual morphology. A common form is the elliptical galaxy which has an ellipse-shaped light profile. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped with dusty, curving arms. Those with irregular or unusual shapes are known as irregular galaxy and typically originate from disruption by the gravitational pull of neighboring galaxies. Such interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in a merging, sometimes induce significantly increased incidents of star formation leading to star burst galaxies. Smaller galaxies lacking a coherent structure are referred to as irregular galaxies.

There are probably more than 170 billion (1.7 × 10¹¹) galaxies in the observable universe and possibly more in a theoretical wider multiverse. Most are 1,000 to 100,00 parsecs in diameter and usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or mega parsec). Intergalactic space (the space between galaxies) is filled with a tenuous gas of an average density less than one atom per cubic meter. The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations known as groups and clusters, which, in turn usually form larger super clusters. At the largest scale, these associations are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which are surrounded by immense voids.

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Shadow

In Jungian psychology, the shadow or "shadow aspect" may refer to (i) the entirety of the unconscious, i.e., everything of which a person is not fully conscious. (ii) an unconscious aspect of the personality which the conscious ego does not recognize in itself. Because one tends to reject or remain ignorant of the least desirable aspects of ones personality, the shadow is largely negative. 
There are, however, positive aspects which may also remain hidden in ones shadow (especially in people with low self esteem)contrary to a Freudian conceptualization of shadow, therefore, the Jungian shadow often refers to all that lies outside the light of consciousness, and may be positive or negative. "Everyone carries a shadow, "Jung wrote", and the less it is embodied in the individual's conscious life, the blacker and denser it is." It may be (in part) one's link to more primitive animal instincts which are superseded during early childhood by the conscious mind.

According to Jung, the shadow, in being instinctive and irrational, is prone to projection: turning a personal inferiority into a perceived moral deficiency in someone else. Jung writes that if these projections are unrecognized "The projection-making factor (the Shadow archetype) then has a free hand and can realize its object--if it has one--or bring about some other situation characteristic of its power." These projections insulate and cripple individuals by forming an ever thicker fog of illusion between the ego and the real world.
From one perspective, 'the shadow...is roughly equivalent to the whole of the Freudian unconscious';and Jung himself considered that 'the result of the Freudian method of elucidation is a minute elaboration of man's shadow-side unexampled in any previous age'. Jung also believed that "in spite of its function as a reservoir for human darkness—or perhaps because of this—the shadow is the seat of creativity."; so that for some, it may be, 'the dark side of his being, his sinister shadow...represents the true spirit of life as against the arid scholar'.

The shadow may appear in dreams and visions in various forms, and typically 'appears as a person of the same sex as that of the dreamer'. It is possible that it might appear with dark features to a person of any race, since it represents a distant, primitive and indiscriminate aspect of the mind. The shadow's appearance and role depend greatly on the living experience of the individual, because much of the shadow develops in the individual's mind rather than simply being inherited in the collective unconscious. Nevertheless some Jungian maintain that 'The shadow contains, besides the personal shadow, the shadow of society ... fed by the neglected and repressed collective values'.
Interactions with the shadow in dreams may shed light on one's state of mind. A conversation with the shadow may indicate that one is concerned with conflicting desires or intentions. Identification with a despised figure may mean that one has an unacknowledged difference from the character; a difference which could point to a rejection of the illuminating qualities of ego-consciousness. These examples refer to just two of many possible roles that the shadow may adopt, and are not general guides to interpretation. Also, it can be difficult to identify characters in dreams — "all the contents are blurred and merge into one another ... 'contamination' of unconscious contents" so that a character who seems at first to be a shadow might represent some other complex instead.

Jung also made the suggestion of there being more than one layer making up the shadow. The top layers contain the meaningful flow and manifestations of direct personal experiences. These are made unconscious in the individual by such things as the change of attention from one thing to another, simple forgetfulness, or a repression. Underneath these idiosyncratic layers, however, are the archetypes which form the psychic contents of all human experiences. Jung described this deeper layer as "a psychic activity which goes on independently of the conscious mind and is not dependent even on the upper layers of the unconscious—untouched, and perhaps untouchable—by personal experience" (Campbell, 1971). This bottom layer of the shadow is also what Jung referred to as the collective unconscious.

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Acid

ACID (Anti Copying in Design) is a membership organization, committed to raising awareness and encouraging respect for intellectual property within corporate social responsibility. The ACID logo is recognized as a strong symbol of deterrence. ACID accredited law firms have achieved £3 million+ in costs and damages in 400+ settlements for members.  
The powerful ACID logo is an internationally recognized symbol of deterrence and design protection, helping to protect members from the potentially devastating financial damage inflicted by intellectual property infringement. 1000′s are licensed through membership to use the ACID logo to communicate their strict anti copying policy and many members have utilized the logo on their website e.g. Bruce Munro, Osborne & Little and Alston Cabinets.

ACID has a broad, influential membership base of designers & manufacturers, jewellery, furniture manufacturers, gift ware designers, architects, fashion designers, interior accessory producers, graphic designers with over 1,000+ member companies and individuals, all with one shared voice.  To date there have been over 450 settlements with over £3 million recovered in costs and damages by ACID Accredited Law Firms and ACID has managed 2000+ mediation at exhibitions and events. Less than 30% required further legal intervention.
ACID’s Lobbying arm is heard in Parliamentary and legislative quarters, fighting to improve designers’ rights.  ACID recently provided a submission to the Hargreaves Review on Intellectual Property and the response of the Review Board can be viewed here.
Knowledge of IP rights is a key strength providing a sound preventative and deterrent strategy against design theft.  ACID has a formidable track record of successful settlements against IP theft. 

ACID is a full member of the a unique coalition of trade enforcement organisations providing a single voice for those who share an interest in preventing intellectual property theft in the UK. ACID is also a member of the All Party Group on Design & Innovation and an associate member of the British-confederation of Furniture.

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Comets

A comet is an icy Small Solar System Body   ( SSSB ) that, when close enough to the Sun, displays a visible coma (a thin, fuzzy, temporary atmosphere) and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are both due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. Comets have been observed since ancient times and have traditionally been considered bad omens.

Comets have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from a few years to hundreds of thousands of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt, or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Longer-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a hypothesized spherical cloud of icy bodies in the outer Solar System. Long-period comets plunge towards the Sun from the Oort cloud because of gravitational perturbations caused by either the massive outer planets of the Solar System (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), or passing stars. Rare hyperbolic comets pass once through the inner Solar System before being thrown out into interstellar space along hyperbolic trajectories.

Comets are distinguished from asteroids by the presence of a coma or a tail. However, extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids.Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System.The discovery of main-belt comets and active centaurs has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets (see asteroid terminology).

As of January 2011 there are a reported 4,185 known comet of which about 1,500 are Kreutz Sungrazers and about 484 are short-period. This number is steadily increasing. However, this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population: the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System may number one trillion. The number visible to the naked eye averages roughly one per year, though many of these are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright or notable examples are called "Great Comets".

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Human Heart

The heart is a myogenic muscular organ found in all animals with a circulatory system (including all vertebrates), which pumps blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The term cardiac (as in cardiology) means "related to the heart" and comes from the Greek καρδιά, kardia, for "heart".

The vertebrate heart is principally composed of cardiac muscle and connective tissue. Cardiac muscle is an involuntary striated muscle tissue found only in this organ and responsible for the ability of the heart to pump blood. The average human heart, beating at 72 beats per minute, will beat approximately 2.5 billion times during an average 66 year lifespan. It weighs approximately 250 to 300 grams (9 to 11 oz) in females and 300 to 350 grams (11 to 12 oz) in males.

In invertebrates that possess a circulatory system, the heart is typically a tube or small sac and pumps fluid that contains water and nutrients such as proteins, fats, and sugars. In insects, the "heart" is often called the dorsal tube and insect "blood" is almost always not oxygenated since they usually respirate (breathe) directly from their body surfaces (internal and external) to air. However, the hearts of some other arthropods (including spiders and crustaceans such as crabs and shrimp) and some other animals pump hemolymph, which contains the copper-based protein hemocyanin as an oxygen transporter similar to the iron-based hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates.

The human heart has a mass of between 250 and 350 grams and is about the size of a fist.It is located anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum.It is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the pericardium. The superficial part of this sac is called the fibrous pericardium. This sac protects the heart, anchors its surrounding structures, and prevents overfilling of the heart with blood.

The outer wall of the human heart is composed of three layers. The outer layer is called the epicardium, or visceral pericardium since it is also the inner wall of the pericardium. The middle layer is called the myocardium and is composed of cardiac muscle which contracts. The inner layer is called the endo-cardium and is in contact with the blood that the heart pumps. Also, it merges with the inner lining (endo-thelium) of blood vessels and covers heart valves.

The human heart has four chambers, two superior atria and two inferior ventricles. The atria are the receiving chambers and the ventricles are the discharging chambers. The pathway of blood through the human heart consists of a pulmonary circuit and a systemic circuit. De-oxygenated blood flows through the heart in one direction, entering through the superior vena cava into the right atrium and is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle before being pumped out through the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary arteries into the lungs. It returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium where it is pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle before leaving through the aortic valve to the aorta.

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Respiratory System

Respiratory is the breakdown of absorbed food with the help of oxygen. During this process, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)are released as waste and a lot of energy is produced. This energy is made available to the cells of the body.
        
Food           +  oxygen    g    carbon dioxide  +  water  + energy
C6H12O6   +  6O2         g          6CO2          +  6H2O  + energy    
                  
In this process, glucose is oxidized slowly in the cells and energy is released. The energy is released in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), This a complex compound. This process of cellular respiration takes place in mitochondria of every cell of the body. Since every cell needs energy to work and this process takes place within cells of the body, it is also called internal respiration or tissue respiration. As, it occurs in the presence of oxygen, it is also called aerobic respiration.
          

In certain micro-organisms like fungi, yeast and bacteria glucose is partially broken down into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid and carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen. This type of respiration which occurs in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.The carbon dioxide released during this process and the intake of oxygen is carried out by lungs. This process of transport of oxygen to the body tissues in animals for the purpose of respiration and the removal of carbon dioxide is called breathing or external respiration.          
Blood plays an important role in respiration. Oxygen needed for respiration and carbon dioxide produced during respiration are transported by blood. Blood transports oxygen after combining with hemoglobin to tissues and transports carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs. Hemoglobin is a respiratory pigment present in the blood cells. The blood also transports the molecules of glucose to each cell and tissues.
           
The various respiratory organs are:

1. Nostrils
2. Nasal cavity
3. pharynx
4. trachea
5. bronchi
6. lungs


1. Nostrils:

Nostrils are the apertures in the nose through which air enters the nasal cavity.

 


2. Nasal cavity:
                         

It has fine hair and a sticky substance called mucus. Hair and mucus prevent dirt, dust and germs from entering the respiratory system. It also cools or warms the inhaled air to the body temperature to avoid sudden change in temperature in the lungs.


3. Pharynx:
                  
The common passage of the nasal cavity, mouth cavity, trachea and oesophagus, is called pharynx. Air from the nasal cavity enters the pharynx. The pharynx has a pair of tonsils on the right and the left sides. The lower part of the pharynx has low apertures, one opening into the windpipe (trachea) and the other opening into the oesophagus. The aperture of the trachea is termed glottis. It is guarded by a flap like structure called epiglottis which closes the glottis. The function of the epiglottis is to prevent the entry of food into the windpipe.

4. Trachea:
                  
The trachea or windpipe is a tube supported by rings of cartilage. It has a mucus lining.


The trachea has two main functions:
a) The cartilaginous rings of the trachea help in                                              
     keeping air passage all the time.
                       b) The mucus lining catches the dust particles present
                            in the inhealed air.        
Air entering trachea first passes through larynx or voice box. It helps in producing sound.


5. Bronchi:
                  
The trachea is divided into two bronchi. A bronchus is a tube which connects trachea with the lungs.
   



6. Lungs:
               

The bronchi also have cartilaginous rings to keep thin passages open in the lungs. Each bronchus divides further into smaller branches termed bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends in a tiny chamber called air sac. The air sac has a large number of microscopic cavities called alveoli. The alveoli have extremely thin walls surrounded by thin capillaries.
              The alveoli are the structures in the lungs where the exchange of gases (oxygen and dioxide0 takes place.
               We breath in air rich in oxygen. The air goes in through nostrils to a pipe called windpipe or trachea. The pipe divides into two branches called bronchi which finally enter the lungs. From the lungs, oxygen enters the blood.
                Carbon-dioxide and water formed in respiration are released into lungs. These are removed from the lungs with the air we breathe out.          

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Constellations

 In modern astronomy, a constellation is an internationally defined area of the celestial sphere. These areas are grouped around asterisks (which themselves are generally referred to in non-technical language as "constellations"), which are patterns formed by prominent stars within apparent proximity to one another on Earth's night sky.

There are 88 standard constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU ) since 1922. The majority of these go back to the 48 constellations defined by Ptolemy in his Almagst (2nd century). The remaining ones were defined in the 17th and 18th century; the most recent ones are found on the southern sky, defined in Coelum australe stelliferum by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763).

There are also numerous historical constellations not recognized by the IAU, or constellations recognized in regional traditions of astronomy or astrology, such as Chinese, Hindu or Australian Aboriginal

The Late Latin term "constellātiō" can be translated as "set with stars". The term was first used in astrology, of asterisms that supposedly exerted influence, attested in Ammianus (4th century). In English the term was used from the 14th century, also in astrology, of conjunctions of planets. The modern astronomical sense of "area of the celestial sphere around a specific asterism" dates to the mid 16th century.

Colloquial usage does not distinguish the senses of "asterism" and "area surrounding an asterism". The modern system of constellations used in astronomy focuses primarily on constellations as grid-like segments of the celestial sphere rather than as patterns, while the term for a star-pattern is asterism. For example, the asterism known as the Big Dipper corresponds to the seven brightest stars of the larger IAU constellation of Ursa Major.

The term circumpolar constellation is used for any constellation that, from a particular latitude on Earth, never sets below the horizon. From the north pole, all constellations north of the celestial equator are circumpolar constellations. In the northern latitudes, the informal term equatorial constellation has sometimes used for constellations that lie to the south of the circumpolar constellations.Depending on the definition, equatorial constellations can include those that lie entirely between declinations 45° north and 45° south,or those that pass overhead between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. They generally include all constellations that intersect the celestial equator.

The current list of 88 constellations recognised by the International Astronomical Union since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his Almagst in the 2nd century. Ptolemy's catalogue is informed by Eudoxus of Cnidus, a Greek astronomer of the 4th century BC who introduced earlier Babylonian astronomy to the Hellenistic culture. Of the 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy, thirty can be shown to have a much longer history, reaching back into at least the Late Bronze Age. This concerns the zodiacal constellations

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Rock

The crust of the earth is made up of solid rocks. These rocks are physical and chemical units of matter collected together in the form of great masses. Rocks are of different kinds.They contain different kinds of metals and non-metals. Rocks differ from each other in their shape, size, degree of hardness, texture, color, origin and chemical nature.

Kinds of rocks:
                       According to the mode of their formation, rocks are divided into three groups:

1. Igneous rock
2. sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

1. Igneous rocks:                             
                                  

Igneous rocks are formed from the hot molten rock material that comes out of the earth. The molten material called magma makes its way out of the earth through cracks in the crust of the earth. After coming out of the earth, it is called lava and solidifies to form rocks. These rocks may have a fine or coarse texture. The igneous rocks contain mica,feldspar, quartz, silica,etc. They contains metals like iron, aluminium, copper, tin, etc. While lava is coming out a depression is formed at the top called crater. Since, igneous rocks are formed from early times, they are also called Primary rocks. At the time of earth formation, igneous rocks were in large quantity but as the earth cooled down other kinds of rocks also came into existence.

2. Sedimentary rocks:
                                       

Sedimentary rocks are made up of number of other rocks, or even remains of animals and plants, all stuck together. Sedimentary rocks harden with age and thickness of the overlying layers increases, but are usually softer than igneous rocks.Sandstone and limestone are two of the most common sedimentary rocks. Sandstone is formed from sand particles (quartz) cemented together by the minerals silica or calcite.
                         
Limestone is formed mainly from animals and plant remains. Chalk is a kind of limestone formed from the shells of sea creatures. Coal is an organic rock formed from the submerged and buried forests. Sedimentary rocks form in layers over million of years, the bottom layer being the oldest,remains of plant and animals that get trapped between the layers are preserved.
          The example of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, clay, shale, limestone, dolomite, conglomerate, flint, coal, etc.



3. Metamorphic rocks:
                                   
Heat and pressure, deep below the surface of the earth, can being about change in the chemical structure of the minerals content of igneous or sedimentary rocks. The new types of rocks, called metamorphic rocks, are formed. This process is called metamorphosis. Metamorphism makes the rocks harder. Metamorphic rocks are formed only when the outer layers are eroded as a result of changes occurring with time, wind, water, pressure, temperature and other climatic changes. 
             For example, shale and mud stones a converted to slate, limestone is converted to marble and sandstones are converted to quartzite.

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